Chapter 17

Psychology in the Workplace

Industrial/Organizational psychology

n Psychologists apply psychological principles and research results in the workplace

Personnel psychology

n Subfield of industrial/organizational psychology that deals with design of appropriate and effective strategies for hiring, training, and evaluating employees

n Hiring workers

• Job analysis

n Assessment of a job category determining the work that needs to be done and skills required to do it

• Job description

n An outline of responsibilities for a given job category

n The end result of the job analysis

Psychology in the Workplace

Recruitment, selection, and testing

n Recruitment

• Indentifying appropriate candidates for a position

n Selection

• Process of matching applicants to jobs

n Assessment center

• Facility devoted to testing job applicants by using work simulations and other comprehensive tools

n In-basket test

• Work simulation test

• Applicants given job-appropriate tasks and expected to make decisions in a limited amount of time

• May yield more valid evaluation than interviews and tests

n Structured interviews

• Standardized interview questions and procedures used with all applicants for a position

Psychology in the Workplace

Employee training and development

n On-the-job training

• Employees receiving training and instruction while performing the job

n Apprenticeship

• Pairing a novice with an experienced employee

n Off-the-job training

• Employees watch videos, demonstrations, and are expected to implement what they learn on the job

n Job rotation

• Employees do and rotate between various jobs

n Conflict resolution

• A conflict is evaluated and a strategy for resolving it is identified

Resolving Conflicts

How might a manager or supervisor implement the suggested conflict resolution strategy for each situation?

n Avoidance:

Two workers in a manufacturing facility disagree about where a trash can should be placed.

n Accommodation

A new employee irritates co-workers by criticizing their actions and routines with the comment, “That’s not the way we did it where I worked before.”

n Compromise

Cashiers in a busy retail store can’t agree on which one of them should get to go on break first.

n Authoritative

An office employee is distressed because he is often asked to cover for a co-worker who is habitually tardy.

n Collaboration

Teachers disagree about how to discipline disruptive students.

Psychology in the Workplace

Evaluating workers

n Performance appraisal

• Formal process to determine how well an employee functions on the job

n Behavioral observation scales

• Instruments for employee evaluation requiring respondents to rate an employee’s observable behaviors

n Management by objectives

• Subordinates and supervisors set performance goals together

• Agree how goal attainment will be measured and how much time will be allotted to each goal

n 360-degree evaluation

• Combines worker performance ratings from supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, and the workers themselves

Organizational Psychology

The study of individuals and groups in formal organizations

Approaches to Management

n Scientific management

• Assumes workers and supervisors are more efficient and effective when requirements are based on empirical data

n Time motion studies

• Examines the exact physical motions required to perform given manufacturing functions in least amount of time

n Theory X

• Management focuses on work efficiency, or how well an employee performs specific job tasks

n Theory Y

• Management emphasizes psychological efficiency

• Degree to which a job has positive psychological impact on an employee

Organizational Psychology

Approaches to Management

n Job enrichment

• Process of changing a job so it will be more intrinsically motivating

n Adding responsibilities normally only given to managers

n Participative management

• Managers involve subordinates in the decision-making process

n Self-managed teams

• Group of workers have complete responsibility for planning, executing and evaluating their work

• All workers on same level

• Collectively responsible for goal achievement or failure

n Quality circle

• Employees search for ways to increase productivity, improve quality of products, or reduce costs

Organizational Psychology

Leadership

• Ability to get individuals or groups to do what the leader wants done

n Charismatic Leaders

• Rely on sheer force of personality

• Have great need for power and extraordinary confidence in their ability to lead

• Believe in superiority of their goals

• Highly persuasive

• Convince followers to share their passionate commitment

n Cult leaders

n Political figures

Organizational Psychology

Differences in leaders’ effectiveness

n Trait approach

• Leaders possess intrinsic characteristics helping them influence others

• Some people are “natural born” leaders

• Similar characteristics demonstrated cross-cultures

n Situational approach

• Leadership depends a match between a leader’s characteristics and situations in which they are called to lead

n Franklin D. Roosevelt’s response to the Great Depression and WWII shaped perceptions

n George W. Bush’s response to terrorism and Katrina

Organizational Psychology

Differences in leaders’ effectiveness

n Behavioral approach

• Leadership can be taught

• Results of specific behaviors exhibited by leaders

• Consideration

n Behaviors the communicate a leader’s interest in followers as individuals

• Initiating structure

n Behaviors that focus on a task

n Means employed to accomplish them

n Leader-member exchange (LMX)

• Assumes leaders and followers exert mutual influences on one another

• Includes emotional aspects of leader-follower relationships

• In-group and out-group differences

Organizational Culture and Climate

Organizational culture

n System of shared beliefs and practices

n Evolves within an organization

n Influences behavior of members

Stories

n Founding and development of the organization

n How individuals attained their positions

Socialized

n Employees experience process of integration via formal or informal socialization

Rites

n Recurring events that carry specific meanings

• Recognition awards or going to dinner as a group

Organizational Culture and Climate

Symbols

n Objects that carry specific meanings

• Vehicles with company logos

Management philosophy

n Broad statement of organization’s goals

n Means used to attain them

n Employees’ sense of belonging enhanced while carrying them out

Organizational climate

n How employees perceive and respond emotionally to an organization’s culture

Job satisfaction

n Degree an employee feels positive about his/her job

Ethics in the Workplace

Moral-rights perspective

n Individual behavior within an organization should be guided by basic rights of larger culture

• You wouldn’t steal your neighbor’s pen so you shouldn’t steal the company’s pen either.

Utilitarian perspective

n Aim for the greatest good for the greatest number of people

• A plant should close if more stockholders are harmed than workers

Organizational social responsibility

n Policies should consider the larger societal interests

• Laying off workers burdens tax payers so job training, severance pay, and placement services are offered

Human Factors Psychology

Deals with the ways workers interact with the characteristics of the workplace

• Also called ergonomics

Workplace designs

n Open designs

• Workers are placed in large space separated by partitions or barriers

• Less expensive

• Greater design flexibility

• Noisier

• Lack of privacy

Human Factors Psychology

Workspace envelope

• Three dimensional workspace in which a worker performs job tasks

n Comfort influenced by:

• Physical size and design

• Adjustable furniture

• Computer workstation design and ease of use

• Breaks

• Exercise to reduce strain and fatigue

Human Factors Psychology

Work-life balance

n Interactive influences among employees’ work and non-work roles

• Parenting children and caring for aged parents

• Affect mental, physical health, and job performance

Quality of work life movement

n Reducing work-related stress by basing job and workplace design on analyses of the quality of employee experiences in an organization

n Happier people at work are more productive

• On-site day care

• Pays for itself through reduced absenteeism and lower stress

Human Factors Psychology

Quality of work life movement

n Telecommuting

• Employees work at home

• Connected to workplace via computer, fax, and telephone

n Flextime

• Employees create their own work schedules

• Come and go as please as long as hours and work requirements are satisfied

• Work during their most productive times

• Core hours

n Time when employees must be present

• Can reduce work-family conflicts

n Job Sharing

• A full-time job filled by more than one person

n One person works M, W, F; another works T and Th

• Can help someone return to full time after leave of absence

Psychology Healthy Workplace

5 criteria established by the APA

n Employee involvement

n Participation in:

• Decision making

• Self-managed work terms

n Health and safety

n Adequate health insurance

n Access to fitness centers and mental Health Services

n Workplace safety training

n Promotion of healthy lifestyle choices

n Employee growth and development

n Opportunities for advancement

n Tuition reimbursement

n Skills enhancement training

Psychology Healthy Workplace

5 criteria established by the APA

4. Work-life balance

n Flexible work schedules

n Assistance with child and elderly care

n Family leave benefits

5. Employee recognition

n Fair compensation

n Awards ceremonies

n Performance-based pay increases and bonuses

Gender Issues at Work

Women’s work patterns

n 70% of mothers with children under 18 employed at least part time

n Work patterns less likely to be continuous

• Move in and out of workplace to raise children

• 44% of female professionals return to planned full- time work

• Few males’ made any changes

n Women more concerned with and adept at integrating work and family roles than men

• Sense of ‘what is best for family’

n Division of work and family responsibilities unchanged for 30 years

• Father’s not thought of as having choice to stay home

• Women more often blamed for family or child problems

Gender Differences

On-the-job coping styles

n Job satisfaction more complex for women

• Men and women respond differently to work stressors

• Men negotiate to bring about changes

n Problem-focused coping

• Women discuss problems with co-workers

n Emotion-focused coping

• Enables balance between dissatisfactions with contentment

• Women

n Cope better when work stressors are difficult or impossible to change

n Better able to assess how their skills and personality traits fit particular jobs

• Helps avoid inappropriate career or job choices

Gender Discrimination

Glass ceiling

n An invisible barrier preventing women from reaching the highest executive positions

• Influenced by sexism and ‘good-old-boy’ network

• Avoided by starting own business

n Advances by women

• 25% in 2003 earn more than husband – 18% in 1987

• 38% employed in corporate management positions

n Greatest inroads in education and government institutions

Gender Stereotypes

n Taint evaluations of women’s job performance

n Women less likely to seek upper-level management positions because of work-family conflict

Sexual Harassment

Any kind of unwanted or offensive sexual expression in the workplace

Types of sexual harassment

n Sexual bribery (quid pro quo)

• A raise or promotion at work is promised in return for sex

n Sexual coercion (quid pro quo)

• You are told you will be fired if you don’t have sex

n Gender harassment (hostile work environment)

• A female day-care worker belittles a male coworker because she believes men are inferior at child care

n Seductive behavior

• Email messages are sent describing sexual fantasies

n Sexual imposition

• Pornographic images are displayed despite complaints

Diversity in the Workplace

Diversity training

• Equips workers with human relations skills needed to function effectively in a diverse workplace

Race

• Shared biological characteristics

n Skin color

Ethnicity

• Shared social characteristics

n Language and customs

Ethnocentrism

• Tendency to look at situations from one’s own racial or cultural perspective

n What color are ‘flesh’ colored crayons?

Cultural Diversity in the Workplace

Factors that have contributed to cultural diversity include:

Globalization

n Process in which workers all over the world are brought into frequent contact with one another

Immigration

n Ten percent of U.S. residents were born in another country

n Found in everything from high-tech to unskilled labor jobs

Why culture matters in the workplace:

n Emphasis on group versus individual achievement

n Conflicts between individual vs. collectivists more likely

n “Lean production” or Theory X management style

Promoting Diversity

Diversity involves more than race and ethnicity:

• Gender

• Older workers

• Sexual orientation

• Workers with disabilities

Providing better services to customers

n Match employees’ backgrounds to customers

n Promotes a sense of fairness

Affirmative Action

n Process in which organizations actively seek to build an employee pool including members of as many racial and cultural groups as possible

Distortion mangement

n Learning to recognize stereotyping and minimize it

Promoting Diversity

Diversity training

n Includes information to increase workers’ awareness of ethnocentrism and the perspectives of different groups, such as:

• Interaction skills

• Cultural awareness

n International meeting

n Cultural norms

n Greetings

n Personal space

n Eye contact

n Individualism/collectivism

• Effects of ethnocentrism

n Hiring, job assignments, etc.

Career Development Process

Holland’s personality types

n Six basic personality types associated with work preferences:

n Realistic

n Investigative

n Artistic

n Social

n Enterprising

n Conventional

People whose personality matches their job are more likely to be satisfied with their work.

Holland’s Personality Types and Work Preferences

Realistic

• Personality traits

n Aggressive, masculine, strong

n Low verbal or interpersonal skills

• Work preferences

n Mechanical activities and tools use

n Mechanic, electrician or surveyor

Investigative

• Personality traits

n Thinking, organizing, and planning

n Low in social skills

• Work preferences

n Ambiguous, challenging tasks

n Scientist or engineer

Holland’s Personality Types and Work Preferences

Artistic

• Personality Traits

n Intuitive expressive, imaginative impulsive

n Prefer flexibility

• Work Preferences

n Unstructured, highly individual activity

n Often an artist

Social

• Personality Traits

n Extraverted, people-oriented, sociable, and needing attention

n Avoids intellectual activity

n Dislikes highly ordered activity

• Work Preferences

n Working with people in service jobs

n Nursing and education

Holland’s Personality Types and Work Preferences

Enterprising

• Personality traits

n Highly verbal and dominating

n Enjoys organizing and directing others

n Persuasive and a strong leader

• Work preferences

n Often choose a career in sales

Conventional

• Personality traits

n Prefers structured activities and subordinate roles

n Likes clear guidelines

n Accurate and precise

• Work preferences

n May choose an occupation such as data entry

Career Development Process

Super’s career development stages

• Career development happens in stages from infancy

n Growth Stage (birth to 14 years)

• Learn about abilities and interests

n Exploratory stage (15-24 years old)

• Trial and error

• Frequent job changing

n Establishment stage (25-45 years old)

• Learning how things work in your career

• Culture of organization

• Mentoring and goals

n Maintenance Phase (45-retirement)

• Protect and maintain goals made in earlier years

n Career changes due to economy may lead to re-entering exploratory stage at any time

Career Development Process

Job satisfaction

n Key may lie outside of the career development process

• General optimistic outlook on life

n May lead to ‘the right job’ and career satisfaction

n Age

• Younger people tend to be less satisfied

n Believe older adults more satisfied due to higher status and higher earnings

• Work becomes less central to the lives of older adults

• Key ingredient

n Finding the right balance between work and other life pursuits

n Personal definition of success

• Develop a personal definition of success

• How much time do you want to devote to your work?

• What hobbies would you like to pursue?

• How important is a family?