Chapter 11

Human Sexuality

Sexual attitudes and behavior

• Results of an international survey conducted by Durex Corporation shows that the frequency of intercourse varies from country to country.

Sex, Gender, and Gender Roles

Gender

n Psychological and sociocultural definition of masculinity or femininity

• Based on expected behaviors for females and males

Biological Sex

n Physiological status as male or female

• Sex Chromosomes

n Pair determines biological sex of person

n XX = females; XY = males

• Gonads

n Sex glands — ovaries in females, testes in males

• Androgens

n Male sex hormones

n Determine embryonic development of male or female genitals

n Primary sex characteristics

• Internal and external reproductive organs – the genitals

n Secondary sex characteristics

• Appear at puberty – pubic hair, breasts, chest hair, etc.

Biological Sex

Psychological Gender

n Gender roles

• Cultural expectations define appropriate gender behaviors

n Gender identity

• Sense of being male or female

• Acquired between 2 and 3 years old

n Transgendered

• An individual’s biological sex and psychological gender do not match

n Transsexuals

• Individuals who lives as the opposite gender full-time

n Sex reassignment

• Assignment to the opposite sex after living for a period of time as the other sex

n Right after birth

n Later life surgery

Gender Role Development Theories

Psychoanalytic theory

n Gender role development unconscious process governed by emotions

n Children want to bond with opposite sex parent

Masculinity and femininity as opposites

n More masculine a person is the less feminine traits exist

n No longer a dominant view among researchers

Learning theories

n Gender roles are learned behaviors imitated and reinforced by parents, peers, teachers, etc.

n Research supports learning only as a part of development

Cognitive developmental theory

n Gender role concept acquired in series of steps

• Gender stability

n Awareness that gender is permanent characteristic

• Gender constancy

n Understanding that close and activities do not affect gender

Gender Role Development Theories

Multi-Dimensional Approach

n Gender roles include both masculine and feminine dimensions

n A relative balance determines gender role

• Bem Sex Role Inventory BSRI identifies roles as:

n Feminine

n Masculine

n Androgynous

n Undifferentiated

n Gender schema theory

• Children motivated to behave consistent with cultural standards and stereotypes

n Evolutionary theory

• Male and female roles influenced by natural selection

• Gender based play result from innate biological preparedness shaped by natural selection

• Critics cite situational contexts versus innate tendencies

Meta-Analyses of Gender Differences

Variables with zero or near-zero gender differences

* Math concepts * Problem solving

* Vocabulary * Reading comprehension

* Verbal reasoning * Abstract reasoning

* Self disclosure * Impulsiveness * Outgoingness * Life satisfaction

* Self-esteem * Happiness

Variables with moderate to large differences favoring males

* Mechanical Reasoning * Mental Rotation

* Science Achievement * Intrusive interruptions

* Tolerance of cheating * Computer Self efficacy

* Assertiveness * Helping when watched

* Physical Aggression * Verbal Aggression

Variables with moderate to large differences favoring females

* Spelling * Perceptual Speed

* Language Ability * Speech Production

* Smiling * Indirect aggression

* Trust * Agreeableness

Gender Differences

Stereotypes

n Assumption that all members of a group are alike

n Rely upon schemas

• Dichotomous statements result

n “Men do X, but women do Y.”

n Efficiency contributions to stereotypes

• Statistics wrongly generalized to other variables

n Cultural values

• “All men have more math ability than women.”

• Belief fits into cultural perceptions of men as powerful and women as weak

n Avoiding gender stereotyping

• More variability within each gender than between males and females

• Gender difference at one age doesn’t imply it is present through out life

Problem Solving Tasks Favoring Women and Men

Cognitive Abilities

Gender differences in verbal ability

n Females have advantage in:

• Vocabulary size

• Performance on reading tests

• Spelling and writing

n On college entrance tests males outscore females on verbal tasks by 10 points.

Gender differences in math and spatial abilities

• Boys have slightly higher abilities

• Girls get higher grades than boys on math tests

• Males have slightly higher abilities in spatial orientation

Explaining cognitive differences

• Women’s brains function most efficiently on verbal tasks

• Men’s brains function most efficiently on spatial tasks

• Socialization of boys and girls has strong effect

n Stereotypes and parental beliefs contribute

• Children’s activity choices contribute to differences

n Boys participate in math and video games, girls in reading and social tasks

• Nonverbal cues in advertisements

Social Behavior and Personality

n Greater physical aggression in males — a significant and consistent gender difference

n Females more likely use indirect forms of aggression

• Gossip, rumors, rejection, ignoring, etc.

n Female strengths in communication

• More open, trusting, agreeable, and facial recognition

n Explaining social and personality differences

• Prenatal androgen levels predict children’s understanding of intentional and unintentional behaviors

n Lower androgen levels associated with intentional behavior recognition

• Social factors

n Games with violent content increase males’ aggressive behavior

• Stereotypes

n Lead parental expectations and behaviors for girls and boys

Sexual Attitudes and Behavior

n Sexual activity continues throughout lifespan

n Sexual attitudes differ between genders

n Adults in committed relationships report more satisfaction

n Men

• More interested and think of sex more often

• More interested in purely physical aspect of sex without emotional involvement

• Have permissive attitudes toward sex

• Expect sex to become part of dating relationship sooner than women

n Gender gap narrowed

• Approval of premarital sex among women risen from 30 to 91%

• 13% of teenage girls sexually active in 1950s; 47% in 1990s

• Critics note people’s willingness to talk about sex is largest difference

n Cultural differences

• Cross-cultural differences in perceived sex drive

n Chinese and Japanese adults twice as likely to express lower sex drive

Sexual Desire and Arousal

Masters and Johnson conducted laboratory studies of human sexual response cycle

Sexual Desire and Arousal

Sexual Desire and Arousal

• Plateau Phase

n Blood pressure and muscle tension increase

n Breathing is heavy and rapid

n Blood engorges testes, outer vaginal walls, and breasts

• Orgasm Phase

n Highest point of sexual pleasure with discharge of sexual tension

n Involuntary muscle contractions and genitals contract

n Men experience awareness that ejaculation is near, and then ejaculation itself

n Women’s orgasm lasts longer

n 40-50% of women experience orgasm during intercourse

Sexual Desire and Arousal

• Resolution phase

n A tapering-off period where the body returns to its normal state

n Men experience a refractory phase

• A period of time where they can not experience another orgasm

• Women do not have a refractory period

n Sexual response cycle is strongly influenced by hormones

n Testosterone

• Males need a sufficient level to maintain sexual interest and an erection

• Women need a small amount to maintain sexual interest and responsiveness

• Lack of sexual desire can be treated with testosterone treatment

Sexual Desire and Arousal

n Psychological factors

• Play an important role in sexual attraction and arousal

• Include preferences and attitudes we learn from our culture

n Age of initial sexual behaviors

n Conditions, settings, positions, and “authorized” sexual acts

n Perception of what is sexually attractive

n Fanatasy and external stimuli

• Men’s fantasies involve specific visual imagery

n Male arousal tied to visual centers in brain

• Women’s fantasies involve emotional romantic content

• 95% of adults admit having sexual fantasies

• 25% experience strong guilt about them

• Suggestion of higher sexual satisfaction and fewer problems with higher fantasy

• External stimuli (movie and magazine images) influence arousal and lead to lower personal satisfaction

• “Total relationship commitment and loving concern sustains a couple sexually over the years.”

Sexual Orientation

The direction of one’s sexual preferences, erotic feelings, and sexual activity

• Heterosexual: attracted to members of the opposite sex

• Homosexual: attracted to members of the same sex

• Bisexual: attracted to both sexes

• 2.8% of men and 1.4% of women report themselves as homosexual and bisexual

• Neuroscientists report an area in the hypothalamus governing sexual behavior is twice as large in heterosexual men as in homosexual men

• Environmental factors may also contribute

n Genes affecting personality and temperament may influence reactions to environmental stimuli

• Orientation is a complex interaction of nature and nurture

• Link between childhood experiences is not strong enough to predict sexual orientation

Sexual Orientation

Determinants of Sexual Orientation

n Hormones

• Exposure to androgen during prenatal development

• Prenatal exposure to synthetic estrogen

• Physical inconsistencies noted by exposure to prenatal androgen

n Brain structure

• Hypothalamus, area governing sexual behavior, twice as large

n Questionable research as subjects died from AIDS

• Brain differences either cause or consequence of unrecognized variables

n Genetic influence

• 52% gay identical twins and 22% gay fraternal twins had gay twin

• 12.1% of lesbian participants had gay sister compared with 2.3% of heterosexual female participants

n Gene-environment interactions

• Prenatal environment may influence gene expression

n Childhood experiences of gay men and lesbians

• No clear predictors of sexual orientation noted

Sexual Orientation

Social attitudes toward gays and lesbians

n Until 1973 homosexuality considered a mental disorder

• Now only considered a disorder if individual views it as a problem

n Homophobia

• Intense, irrational hostility toward or fear of homosexuals

• Most people opposed to discrimination based on sexual orientation

• Those with objections focused on behavior not individuals

Gay and lesbian relationships

n Committed couples report greater satisfaction with sex lives

n Monogamy less important to gay couples than to lesbian or heterosexual couples

n Gay males more likely to look elsewhere when dissatisfied

n Lesbian couples value monogamy more highly than gay or heterosexual couples

• Experience more distress over unfaithfulness

Sexual Dysfunctions

n Persistent or recurrent problem causing marked distress, interpersonal difficulties; may involve sexual desire, sexual arousal, or pleasure associated with sex or orgasm

n Hypoactive sexual desire disorder

• Low or nonexistent sexual desire or interest in sexual activity

• Loss of desire or interest may stem from:

n Depression or emotional stress

n Marital or relationship dissatisfaction

n Repeated unsuccessful attempts at intercourse

n Lower levels of testosterone in middle aged or older men

n Sexual aversion disorder

• Aversion to and active avoidance of genital contact with sexual partner

• Emotions like anxiety, fear, or disgust

• May stem from sexual trauma (e.g., rape or incest)

Sexual Dysfunctions

Sexual arousal disorder

• Female sexual arousal disorder

n May not feel aroused from sexual situations

n Unable to achieve or sustain adequate lubrication-swelling response

• Erectile dysfunction

n Inability to have or sustain an erection firm enough for coitus

n Also known as erectile dysfunction or impotence

Orgasmic and sexual pain disorders

• Female orgasmic disorder

n Persistent delays in reaching or inability to reach orgasm despite adequate stimulation

n Some lack interest, others still enjoy sex despite lack of orgasm

• Male orgasmic disorder

n An absence of ejaculation or ejaculation only after prolonged period

• Premature ejaculation

n Orgasm or ejaculation occur with little stimulation

• Dyspareunia

n Sexual pain disorder marked by genital pain

• Vaginismus

n Involuntary muscle contractions tighten or close vagina

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

n Infections spread primarily through intimate sexual contact

n Annually, 19 million Americans contract STDs

n 15-24 years of age are half of cases

n 300 million people worldwide contract curable STDs annually

n Increased dramatically since 1970s

• Permissive attitudes

• Increase in sexual activity among young people

• Greater use of non-barrier contraception (e.g., the pill)

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Bacterial STDs

• Chlamydia

n Highly infectious STD found in both sexes

n Can cause sterility

• Pelvic inflammatory disease

n Infection in female pelvic organs

n Results from untreated chlamydia or gonorrhea

n Causes pain, scarring of tissue, infertility, or ectopic pregnancy

• Gonorrhea

n In males causes, pus-like discharge from the penis and painful urination

n If untreated, females develop pelvic inflammatory disease and possible infertility

• Syphillis

n Untreated, progresses through 3 stages

• Painless sore appears where syphillis enters body

• Painless rash appears on body with fever, sore throat, loss of appetite, fatigue; microorganism enter various tissues and organs

• Blindness, paralysis, heart failure, mental illness, and death result

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Viral STDs

• Genital warts

n Growths on the genitals caused by HPV

n Remains latent in body for years

n May cause genital cancer

n 25% of women between 20-29 and 10% over 30

• Human papillomavirus (HPV)

n Growths on the genitals caused by the HPV

n Recent vaccine for women 6-29 years of age

n Effectiveness and longevity of vaccine to be determined

• Genital herpes

n Caused by herpes simplex virus

n Painful blisters on genitals

n Presently incurable

n Recurs

n Highly contagious

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Viral STDs

• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

n Devastating and incurable illness caused by HIV

n Progressively weakens body’s immune system

n Person is vulnerable to infections that may cause death

n 25^th anniversary in 2006

n 25 million died from AIDS

n 40 million infected with virus causing it

• 2/3 live in sub-Saharan Africa

• 1 million in the U.S.; 80% are male

n Transmission of AIDS

• Primarily through exchange of blood, semen, or vaginal secretions during sexual contact

• May also be exchanged via IV drug users sharing syringes

n Homosexual men largest number of HIV carriers

n 30% of AIDS suffers are women

n Circumcision greatly reduces risk of HIV transmission

n Presence of another STD in HIV infected person increases presence of communicable form of virus in bodily fluids

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Viral STDs

• Psychological impact of HIV and AIDS

n Reaction to news of HIV positive is shock, denial, bewilderment

n Anger at past and present sexual partners, family members, health care professionals, and society in general

n Guilt – sense of being punished

n Denial – ignore medical advice acting as if nothing has changed

n Fear of death, mental, and physical deterioration, rejection by friends, family, and co-workers

n Emotional swings can lead to clinical depression and apathy

n Brain devastation in 40% of patients with AIDS

• Motor and language impairments

• AIDS-related dementia

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Viral STDs

• Psychological coping for AIDS patients

n Patient, family, and friends need education about the disease

n Psychotherapy and self-help groups

• Serve as extended family

n Medications, including antidepressants or anti-anxiety drugs

n Self-help groups for friends and family

n Knowing who to tell, what to tell them, and how

Insert figure 11.5 highlights and history of AIDS

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

n Viral STDs