Studying Psychology

SQ3R Method

n Survey

• Headings, Objectives, Tables, Charts, summaries, Review and Reflect, etc.

n Question

• Read learning objectives questions and “Try It”

n Read

• Each section or segments if complex

n Recite

• Write short summary, compare with objectives

n Review

• Do “Remember It” then "Summary and Review”

How Much Do You Know About Psychology?

n Once damaged, brain cells never work again.

n All people dream during a night of normal sleep.

n As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the time it takes for the victim to get help decreases.

n Humans do not have a maternal instinct.

n It’s impossible for human beings to hear a watch ticking 20 feet away.

n Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.

n Chimpanzees have been taught to speak.

n Creativity and high intelligence do not necessarily go together.

n When it comes to close personal relationships, opposites attract.

n The majority of teenagers have a good relationship with their parents.

Science or Common Sense?

n Definition of Psychology

• The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

n Scientific Method

• The orderly, systematic procedures that researchers follow as they:

n identify a research problem,

n design a study to investigate the problem,

n collect and analyze data,

n draw conclusions,

n and communicate their findings.

The Scientific Method

Steps in The Scientific Method

n Observe / Theorize

n Formulate a testable hypothesis

n Design a study

n Collect data

n Results fail to support hypothesis

n Modify hypothesis and retest

n Results support hypothesis

n Replicate

n Modify theory

Scientific Method

n Theory

• General principle or set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related

n Replication

• Process of repeating a study with different participants and, preferably, a different investigator to verify research findings

Goals of Psychology

n Description

• Tells what occurred as accurately and completely as possible

n Explanation

• An understanding of conditions

• Confirmed by ruling in or out alternatives

n Prediction

• Must Identify all antecedent conditions

n Influence

• Apply principle prevents unwanted occurrences or bring about desired outcomes

Goals of Psychology

n Basic Research

• Conducted to seek new knowledge and explore and advance general scientific understanding

n Applied Research

• Conducted specifically to solve practical problems and improve the quality of life

Psychology’s Roots

n Structuralism

• First formal school of thought

• Endeavored to analyze basic elements of conscious mental experience

• Wilhelm Wundt

n “The father” of psychology

n Pure sensations are basic elements of consciousness

• Edward Titchener

n Established Psychology lab in U.S. at Cornell

n Consciousness reduced to basic elements

• Introspection

Psychology’s Roots

n Functionalism

• An early school of psychology concerned with how humans and animals use mental processes to adapt to their environment

• Included study of behavior, children, animals, and individuals w/ impairments

n William James

• First American psychologist

• Taught mental processes are fluid with continuity not rigid, fixed, or structured

n Charles Darwin

• Evolution theory as applied to psychology

Pioneering Women

n Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)

n Completed PhD in the mid 1880’s at John Hopkins

• Did not receive her degree until 1926

n Formulated a well-regarded, evolutionary theory of color vision

Pioneering Women

Mary Whiton Calkins

(1863-1930)

n Completed the requirements for a doctorate at Harvard

• Harvard refused to grant the degree.

n Established a psychology laboratory at Wellesley College

n Developed the paired associates test

Pioneering Women

Margaret Floy Washburn

(1871-1939)

n Received her PhD from Cornell University

n Taught at Vasser College

n Wrote The Animal Mind (1908) and Movement and Mental Imagery (1916)

African Americans and Other Groups

n Francis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954)

• The “father” of African-American psychology

• First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

• Translated French, German, and Spanish articles

• Chaired psychology department at Howard University

African Americans and Other Groups

Albert Sidney Beckham

(1897-1964),

n A notable African American psychologist

n Established first psychological laboratory at a Black institution of higher learning – Howard University.

n Conducted impressive studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fields

African Americans and Other Groups

Kenneth Clark

n Recent African American psychologist

n National recognition for writings on the harmful effects of racial segregation

n Writings affected Supreme Court rulings declaring rational segregation unconstitutional

n Published classic writings on racial identification and self-esteem with his wife, Mamie Phipps Clark

African Americans and Other Groups

George Sanchez (1906-1972

n Hispanic American psychologist

n Studied bias in intelligence testing during the 1930s

n Pointed out that cultural and language differences work against Hispanic students when they take IQ tests

Native American & Asian Psychologists

n Fastest growing minority group

n Percentages of doctorates doubled from mid 1970’s to mid 1990’s

n Marigold Linton

• Researches autobiographical memory

n Richard Suinn

• Eminent research in behavioral psychology

• First Asian American president of American Psychological Association

n More Women obtain degrees in psychology than men

Schools of Thought in Psychology

The Founders of Psychology

n John B. Watson - Behaviorism

n Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalysis

n Maslow & Rogers - Humanistic

n George Miller - Cognitive

n Wertheimer - Gestalt

n Buss - Evolutionary

Schools of Thought in Psychology

n Behaviorism

• Views observable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter

• Emphasizes environment as key role in as determinant of behavior

• Helped establish psychology as a science

• Founded by John B. Watson

• B. F. Skinner

n Behaviors best understood by analyzing conditions before they occur and consequences that follow them

n Coined phrase operant conditioning

Schools of Thought in Psychology

Psychoanalysis

n Term Freud used for his personality theory and treatment of disorders

n The unconscious is primary focus of psychoanalytic theory

n “Freudian slip” commonly known

n NeoFreudians

• Developed own personality theories

n Influential in psychology though research volume diminishes

Schools of Thought in Psychology

Humanistic Psychology

n Focuses on uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health

n Rejects behavioral and psychoanalytic views

n Emphasizes positive view of human nature

• People are innately good and posses free will

n Important in research of human motivation

n Carl Rogers

• Developed cient-centered therapy

• Popularized group therapy

Schools of Thought in Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

n Views humans as active participants in their environment

n One of the prominent theories of psychology

n Studies mental processes,

• Memory

• Problem solving

• Decision making

• Perception

• Language

• Other forms of cognition

Schools of Thought in Psychology

Gestalt Psychology

n Individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units.

n The perceived whole is more than a sum of its parts.

n Phi phenomenon

n The mind interprets experiences in predictable ways rather than simply reacting to them.

Schools of Thought in Psychology

Information-Processing Theory

n Studies mental structures and processes that uses the computer as a model for human thinking

n The brain processes information in sequential steps, one step at a time.

n The brain interprets information – doesn’t just respond to it

n Associations between new input and previously acquired knowledge

n Research artificial intelligence

Evaluating Theories

n Useful theories lead to:

• Testable hypotheses

• Development of solutions to real-world problems

n Heuristic values

• Spur creativity and curiosity through:

n Stimulated debate among psychologists and researchers

n Motivating proponents and opponents to pursue research related to it

Evaluating Research

n Goal: Equip students with tools needed to evaluate claims based on psychological research

n Critical thinking

• The process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions, and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presented

• Independent thinking

n Not automatically accepting what is read or heard

• Suspension of judgment

n Gathering relevant information on all sides prior to taking a position

• Willingness to modify or abandon prior judgments

n Evaluating new evidence even if it contradicts held beliefs

• Anecdotal evidence

Descriptive Research Methods

n Research methods that yield descriptions of behavior

n Naturalistic observation

• Researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting with out influencing or controlling it

• Limitations

n Observer bias

• Expectations influence observations or interpretations

n Must wait for behaviors to occur

Descriptive Research Methods

n The Case Study

• A single person or a small number of individuals are studied in great depth

• Usually done over an extended period of time

• Uses observations, interviews, or psychological testing

• Limitations:

n Causes of behavior difficult to establish

n Observer bias

n Applicability to larger groups or different cultures questionable

Descriptive Research Methods

n Survey Research

• Interviews or questionnaires are used to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people

• Population

n Entire group of interest to researchers to which they wish to generalize their findings

• Sample

n Part of a population that is studied in order to reach conclusions about the entire population

• Representative sample

n Sample that mirrors the population of interest

n Includes subgroups in the same proportion as found in the population

Descriptive Research Methods

Survey Research

n Interviews and Questionnaires

• Results can be affected by wording, content, and interviewer characteristics

• Questionnaires are less expensive and can gather information from large groups quickly

• May or may not meet scientific scrutiny

n Limitations

• Costly and time consuming

• Faulty information may be gathered

• “Social desirability response”

• Deliberately provide misleading information

Descriptive Research Methods

The Correlational Method

n Establishes the degree of relationship (correlation) between two characteristics, events, or behaviors

n Correlation Coefficient

• A numerical value that indicates strength and direction of the relationship between variables

• Ranges from +1.00 (perfect positive correlation) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation)

• Positive Correlation

n Two variables vary in same direction

n When stress increases illness usually increases

• Negative Correlation

n One value’s increase associated with decrease in another

n Number cigarettes smokes and years expected to live

Descriptive Research Methods

Correlational Studies

n Correlation does not prove causation

• Cause-effect conclusions limited

n Advantages

• Ethical reasons don’t allow direct studies

n Researchers can’t ask pregnant women to drink alcohol

• Variables of interest can’t be manipulated

n Does gender cause differences in behavior?

• Less time consuming to conduct

n Correlational studies often less complex

The Experimental Method

Experimental Method

n The only research method to identify cause-effect relationships between two or more variables or conditions

n Variable

• Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured

n Hypothesis

• A prediction about cause-effect relationship between two or more variables

The Experimental Method

n Independent Variables

• A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes changes in another behavior or condition

• Researcher deliberately manipulates the IV

n Dependent Variable

• Any condition or factor that affected by another variable

• It is measured at the end of the experiment

n Operational Definitions

• Specifying how variables in an experiment will be defined, observed and measured

The Experimental Method

n Experimental group

• The group that is exposed to an independent variable

n Control group

• A group similar to the experimental group

• Exposed to the same experimental environment

• Not given the IV

• Used for comparison purposes

Sources of Bias in Research

n Confounding variables

• Extraneous variables (time of day, type of subject, experimenter bias)

n Selection bias

• Assignments to groups so systematic differences are present

n Random assignment

• All participants have equal chance of being assigned to each condition

n Placebo effect

• Response to treatment is due to a person’s expectations not the treatment itself

n Placebo

• An inert substance given to control group to control for placebo effect

n Experimenter bias

• Experimental results influenced by the researcher

n Double-blind procedure

• Neither researchers nor participants are aware of who is in control of experimental groups

Research Methods in Psychology

n Insert Review and Reflect pp 27 or delete slide

Research Methods in Psychology

n Legality: research must conform to applicable laws

n Institutional approval: required clearance from institution/school

n Informed Consent: participants must be informed of the purpose and any potential harm

n Deception: only used when necessary and no other means available

n Debriefing: participants are informed of any deception after end of research

n Clients, patients, students, and subordinates: steps used to assure participants are not damaged in any way by participating

n Payment for participation: fully informed what is expected

n Publication: findings must be made available to others for verification

n Use of animals: required adherence to laws and appropriate care

n Minimization of discomfort: ethical duty to minimize discomfort to animals and to euthanize in humane manner when necessary

Psychologists at Work

Specialties in Psychology

n Clinical

• Specialize in diagnosis and treatment of mental and behavioral disorders such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophrenia

n Counseling

• Help people who have adjustment problems (marital, social, or behavioral) that are generally less severe

n Physiological, Biological, or Neuropsychologists

• Study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior in humans and animals

n Experimental

• Conduct experiments, work in laboratories, teach and conduct research at colleges or universities

Psychologists at Work

Specialties in Psychology

n Developmental

• Study how people grow, develop, and change throughout life

n Educational

• Specialize in teaching and learning

n Social

• How individuals feel, think, and behave in social settings

n Industrial/Organizational

• Relationships between people and work environments

Summary and Review

n How can the SQ3R method help you study more effectively?

n What process do scientists use to answer questions about behavior and mental processes?

n What are the goals of psychology?

n What roles did Wundt and Titchener play in the founding of psychology?

n Why is functionalism important in the history of psychology?

n In what ways have women and minorities shaped the field of psychology?

n How do behaviorists explain behavior and mental processes?

n What do psychoanalytic psychologists believe about the role of the unconscious?

Summary and Review

n According to Maslow and Rogers, what motivates human behavior and mental processes?

n What is the focus of cognitive psychology?

n How do psychologists evaluate theories?

n How can critical thinking be used to interpret media reports of psychological research?

n How do psychological researchers use naturalistic and laboratory observations?

n What are the advantages and disadvantages of the case study?

n How do researchers ensure that survey results are useful?

n What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method?

Summary and Review

n Why do researchers use experiments to test hypotheses about cause-effect relationships?

n How do independent and dependent variables differ?

n Why are experimental and control groups necessary?

n What kinds of factors introduce bias into experimental studies?

n What are the limitations of the experimental method?

n In what ways can participants bias research results?

n What ethical rules must researchers follow when humans are involved in studies?

Summary and Review

n Why are animals used in research?

n What is the main idea behind evolutionary psychology?

n How is biological psychology changing the field of psychology?

n What kinds of variables interest psychologists who take a sociocultural approach?

n What are psychological perspectives, and how are they related to an eclectic position?

n What are some of the specialist working within psychology?

n What kinds of employment opportunities are available for psychology majors?